The Derveni krater. A find unique of its kind, and a product of sophisticated metalworking of the 4th c BC, this vessel was used as a depository urn for the deceased’s ashes in Derveni Grave 2.

A krater or crater (Greek: κρατήρ, kratēr, literally 'mixing vessel') was a large vase in Ancient Greece, used for the dilution of wine with water.

Form and function[edit]

At a Greek symposium, kraters were placed in the center of the room. They were quite large, so they were not easily portable when filled. Thus, the wine-water mixture would be withdrawn from the krater with other vessels, such as a kyathos (pl. kyathoi), an amphora (pl. amphorai)^[1], or a kylix (pl. kylikes)^[1]. In fact, Homer's Odyssey^[2] describes a steward drawing wine from a krater at a banquet and then running to and fro pouring the wine into guests' drinking cups. The modern Greek word now used for undiluted wine, krasi (κρασί), originates from the krasis (κράσις, i.e., mixing) of wine and water in kraters.^[3] Kraters were glazed on the interior to make the surface of the clay more impervious for holding water, and possibly for aesthetic reasons, since the interior could easily be seen. The exterior of kraters often depicted scenes from Greek life, such as the Attic Late 1 Krater, which was made between 760 and 735 B.C.E. This object was found among other funeral objects, and its exterior depicted a funeral procession to the gravesite.^[4]

Usage[edit]

At the beginning of each symposium a symposiarch (συμποσίαρχος), or 'lord of the common drink', was elected by the participants. He would then assume control of the wine servants, and thus of the degree of wine dilution and how it changed during the party, and the rate of cup refills. The krater and how it was filled and emptied was thus the centerpiece of the symposiarch's authority. An astute symposiarch should be able to diagnose the degree of inebriation of his fellow symposiasts and make sure that the symposium progressed smoothly and without drunken excess.

Wine dilution[edit]

Drinking ákratos (undiluted) wine was considered a severe faux pas (misstep, wrongdoing) in ancient Greece, enough to characterize the drinker as a drunkard and someone who lacked restraint and principle.^{[citation needed]} Ancient writers prescribed that a mixing ratio of 1:3 (wine to water) was optimal for long conversation, a ratio of 1:2 when fun was to be had, and 1:1 was really only suited for orgiastic revelry, to be indulged in very rarely, if at all.^{[citation needed]} Since such mixtures would produce an unpalatable and watery drink if applied to most wines made in the modern style, this practice of the ancients has led to speculation^{[by whom?]} that ancient wines might have been vinified to a high alcoholic degree and sugar content, e.g. by using dehydrated grapes, and could withstand dilution with water better.^[dubious] Such wines would have also withstood time and the vagaries of transportation much better. Nevertheless, the ancient writers offer scant details of ancient vinification methods, and therefore this theory, though plausible, remains unsupported by evidence.

Forms[edit]

Column krater[edit]

This form originated in Corinth in the seventh century BCE but was taken over by the Athenians where it is typically black-figure. They ranged in size from 35 centimetres (14 in) to 56 centimetres (22 in) in height and were usually thrown in three pieces: the body/ shoulder area was one, the base another, and the neck/ lip/ rim a third. The handles were pulled separately.^[5]

Calyx krater[edit]

These are among the largest of the kraters, supposedly developed by the potter Exekias in black figure though in fact almost always seen in red. The lower body is shaped like the calyx of a flower, and the foot is stepped. The psykter-shaped vase fits inside it so well stylistically that it has been suggested that the two might have often been made as a set. It is always made with two robust upturned handles positioned on opposite sides of the lower body or 'cul'.^[6]

Volute krater[edit]

This type of krater, defined by volute-shaped handles, was invented in Laconia in the early 6th century BC, then adopted by Attic potters. Its production was carried on by Greeks in Apulia until the end of the 4th century BC. Its shape and method of manufacture are similar to those of the column krater, but the handles are unique: to make each, the potter would have first made two side spirals ('volutes') as decorative disks, then attached a long thin slab of clay around them both forming a drum with flanged edges. This strip would then have been continued downward until the bottom of the handle where the potter would have cut a U-shaped arch in the clay before attaching the handle to the body of the vase.^[7]

Bell krater[edit]

Bell kraters were first made in the early fifth century which meant that it came later than the three other krater types This form of krater looks like an inverted bell with handles that are faced up. Bell kraters are red-figure and not black-figure like the other kraters.^[8]

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• Column

• Calyx

• Volute

• Bell

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Metal kraters[edit]

According to most scholars ceramic kraters imitated shapes designed initially for metal vessels; these were common in antiquity, but survivals are very rare, as the metal was recyclable. Among the largest and most famous metal kraters in antiquity were one in the possession of the Samian tyrant Polycrates, and another one dedicated by Croesus to the Delphic oracle. There are a few extant Archaic bronze kraters (or often only their handles), almost exclusively of the volute-type. Their main production centres were Sparta, Argos and Corinth, in Peloponnesus. During the Classical period the Volute-type continued to be very popular along with the calyx-type, and beside the Corinthian workshop an Attic one was probably active. Exquisite exemplars of both volute- and calyx-kraters come from Macedonian 4th century BC graves. Among them the gildedDerveni Krater represents an exceptional chef d’œuvre of late Classical metalwork.^[9] The Vix bronze crater, found in a Celtic tomb in central France is the largest known Greek krater, being 1.63 m in height^[10] and over 200 kg in weight. Others were in silver, which were too valuable and tempting to thieves to be buried in graves, and have not survived.

Ornamental stone kraters[edit]

Ornamental stone kraters are known from Hellenistic times, the most famous being the Borghese Vase of PentelicMarble and the Medici Vase, also of marble. After rediscovery of these pieces, imitations became a staple of garden decoration in the Baroque and Neoclassical periods. The French artist and landscape designer Hubert Robert included the Borghese Vase, both alone and together with other stone kraters, in several of his works.^[11]

References[edit]

1. ^ ^ab'A Visual Glossary of Greek Pottery'. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-09-28.
2. ^IX.10
3. ^Entry κράσις at LSJ
4. ^Neer, Richard (2012). Greek Art and Archaeology: A New History, c. 2500 – c. 150 BCE. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 76.
5. ^Toby Schreiber (1999). Athenian Vase Construction: A Potter's Analysis. Getty. p. 138. ISBN978-0-89236-465-7. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
6. ^Andrew J. Clark; Maya Elston; Mary Louise Hart (2002). Understanding Greek Vases: A Guide to Terms, Styles, and Techniques. Getty. p. 105. ISBN978-0-89236-599-9. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
7. ^Toby Schreiber (1999). Athenian Vase Construction: A Potter's Analysis. Getty. p. 137. ISBN978-0-89236-465-7. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
8. ^Jacobsthal, Paul (1934). 'The Nekyia Krater in New York'. Metropolitan Museum Studies. 5 (1): 117.
9. ^Barr-Sharrar B., The Derveni krater: masterpiece of classical Greek metalwork, ASCSA 2008
10. ^Vix-Musée-du-Pays-Châtillonnais: Trésor-de-Vix
11. ^Grasselli, Margaret Morgan, Yuriko Jackall, et al., Hubert Robert, The National Gallery of Art, Washington, 2016.

The main culprit behind the end of the dinosaurs is now widely accepted to be an extraterrestrial collision of epic proportions, one that left behind the gargantuan crater of Chicxulub at Mexico. Evidence for this theory grows more ironclad over time – yet only 30 years ago it was often thought to be nonsense.It took a long battle to win many scientists over, researchers say. One of those researchers is University of California at Berkeley geologist Walter Alvarez, who recalls the resistance to his team's claim that such a major change could happen abruptly instead of gradually.This reasoned skepticism 'is exactly what should happen in science,' Alvarez told SPACE.com. 'Radical new ideas must be challenged and tested, and that really happened extensively with this idea.' Dinosaurs ruled the planet for a staggering 135 million years.

Their age came to a dramatic end about 65 million years ago in the most recent and most familiar mass extinction — the end-Cretaceous or Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, often known as the K-T boundary. But the scenario was not immediately accepted when it was proposed.The notion that a or comet triggered this mass extinction began with the discovery of a layer of clay enriched with iridium. This metal is rare on Earth's surface but relatively common in space rocks.

Given this 'iridium anomaly,' the father-son duo of Luis and Walter Alvarez, along with Frank Asaro and Helen Michel, proposed in 1980 that an extraterrestrial collision finished the age of dinosaurs. The elder Alvarez was a Nobel Prize-winning physicist; Asaro and Michel are nuclear chemists.' It flew in the face of the position that geologists and paleontologists at the time had for gradual explanations for everything that happened in the Earth's past, a position that went by the name of uniformitarianism,' said Walter Alvarez. 'The notion that this mass extinction was caused by an impact, or even the notion that there was a sudden mass extinction, raised a lot of dispute at the time, and people strongly challenged the idea.' A theory for skepticsGeochronologist Paul Renne, director of the Berkeley Geochronology Center in California, recalled that he was 'very skeptical.

I was an undergraduate at Berkeley at the time, where you had the Alvarez father-and-son team, so there was probably a major incentive to accept this idea as really cool, but I thought it was really far out and nonsense, to be honest.' Throughout the '80s and '90s, different lines of investigation accumulated evidence that an.' I was skeptical at first, but I soon started finding fairly dramatic evidence of plant extinction at the boundary,' paleontologist Kirk Johnson at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science told SPACE.com.Geochronologist Paul Renne collects a volcanic ash sample from a coal bed within a few centimeters of the dinosaur extinction horizon. A study by Renne and colleagues confirmed the link between the Chicxulub asteroid impact and dinosaur extinction 65 million years ago. Image released Feb.

(Image credit: Courtesy of Courtney Sprain)Geophysicist Sean Gulick at the University of Texas at Austin noted 'the size of the iridium anomaly was such that it was hard to argue that it was anything else but an extraterrestrial impact. But the concept seemed so fantastical that it took a long time for the scientific community to come around.'

Then, in 1991, researchers found evidence that the giant crater near the town of Chicxulub (pronounced CHEEK-she-loob) in Mexico came into being about the time of the mass extinction. The explosion that created the crater, which is more than 110 miles (180 kilometers) wide, likely involved a hit from an object about 6 miles (10 km) across.

The crash would have released as much energy as 100 trillion tons of TNT, or beyond a billion times the power of the atom bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki.' When that crater was found, for most geologists that wrapped up the question of whether an impact was involved in the mass extinction,' Alvarez said.Gulick agreed. 'Once the crater at Chicxulub was recognized for what it was, it became the smoking gun for the idea that an extraterrestrial impact caused the mass extinction,' Gulick told SPACE.com. Big dino-killer: Asteroid or volcanoStill, not everyone believes the. For instance, geologist Gerta Keller at Princeton University maintains the explosion took place 300,000 years before the end-Cretaceous extinction. Some researchers have explored other possible culprits for the disaster, including other impact sites, such as the, or even massive volcanic eruptions, such as those creating the Deccan Flats in India.However, Renne and his colleagues have now discovered the Chicxulubimpact and the end-Cretaceous mass extinction event happened no more than 33,000 years apart. These new findings, appearing in the Feb.

8 issue of the journal Science, support the idea that the extraterrestrial collision dealt the age of dinosaurs its death blow.' I've been involved in a lot of research that's explored huge correlations between, not impacts, so I've really come at the idea of a cosmic impact from the outside,' Renne said.' A few people have said the crater was the wrong age, but I think these new findings very strongly settle that question,' Alvarez said.'

There were huge volcanic eruptions at the Deccan Flats to have taken place over a period of something like a half-million years about when the mass extinction did, so volcanism may have something to do with it as well,' Alvarez said.In any case, 'we now have a completely different view of how the Earth works in terms of gradual changes versus catastrophic changes,' Alvarez said. 'I think in 1980, the general view was that all changes in Earth's past were gradual, and that if you were thinking about catastrophic ones, you were not being catastrophic. I still think that most changes in Earth's history were gradual, but when good strong evidence comes for a catastrophic event, we'll now accept it.' Future research can drill right into the heart of the crater 'to study the process of what happens when you have an,' Gulick said. 'Maybe we can learn more about how this particular impact helped result in the extinction of 75 percent of all species on Earth.' Follow SPACE.com on Twitter. We're also on &.